Bash Version 2.03.
Copyright (C) 1991-1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
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Bash is the shell, or command language interpreter,
that will appear in the GNU operating system.
The name is an acronym for the `Bourne-Again SHell',
a pun on Steve Bourne, the author of the direct ancestor of the current
Unix shell /bin/sh,
which appeared in the Seventh Edition Bell Labs Research version
of Unix.
Bash is an sh-compatible shell that incorporates useful
features from the Korn shell ksh and the C shell csh.
It is intended to be a conformant implementation of the IEEE
POSIX Shell and Tools specification (IEEE Working Group 1003.2).
It offers functional improvements over sh for both interactive and
programming use.
While the GNU operating system will include a version
of csh, Bash will be the default shell.
Like other GNU software, Bash is quite portable. It currently runs
on nearly every version of Unix and a few other operating systems -
independently-supported ports exist for MS-DOS, OS/2,
Windows 95, and Windows NT.
At its base, a shell is simply a macro processor that executes commands. A Unix shell is both a command interpreter, which provides the user interface to the rich set of Unix utilities, and a programming language, allowing these utilitites to be combined. Files containing commands can be created, and become commands themselves. These new commands have the same status as system commands in directories like `/bin', allowing users or groups to establish custom environments.
A shell allows execution of Unix commands, both synchronously and
asynchronously.
The shell waits for synchronous commands to complete before accepting
more input; asynchronous commands continue to execute in parallel
with the shell while it reads and executes additional commands.
The redirection constructs permit
fine-grained control of the input and output of those commands,
and the shell allows control over the contents of their
environment. Unix shells also provide a small set of built-in
commands (builtins) implementing functionality impossible
(e.g., cd, break, continue, and
exec), or inconvenient (history, getopts,
kill, or pwd, for example) to obtain via separate
utilities. Shells may be used interactively or
non-interactively: they accept input typed from the keyboard or
from a file. All of the shell builtins are described in
subsequent sections.
While executing commands is essential, most of the power (and complexity) of shells is due to their embedded programming languages. Like any high-level language, the shell provides variables, flow control constructs, quoting, and functions.
Shells have begun offering features geared specifically for interactive use rather than to augment the programming language. These interactive features include job control, command line editing, history and aliases. Each of these features is described in this manual.
These definitions are used throughout the remainder of this manual.
POSIX
blank
builtin
control operator
word that performs a control function. It is a newline
or one of the following:
`||', `&&', `&', `;', `;;',
`|', `(', or `)'.
exit status
field
filename
job
job control
metacharacter
blank or one of the following characters:
`|', `&', `;', `(', `)', `<', or
`>'.
name
word consisting solely of letters, numbers, and underscores,
and beginning with a letter or underscore. Names are used as
shell variable and function names.
Also referred to as an identifier.
operator
control operator or a redirection operator.
See section Redirections, for a list of redirection operators.
process group
process group ID
process group
during its lifetime.
reserved word
word that has a special meaning to the shell. Most reserved
words introduce shell flow control constructs, such as for and
while.
return status
exit status.
signal
special builtin
token
word or an operator.
word
token that is not an operator.
Bash is an acronym for `Bourne-Again SHell'. The Bourne shell is the traditional Unix shell originally written by Stephen Bourne. All of the Bourne shell builtin commands are available in Bash, and the rules for evaluation and quoting are taken from the POSIX 1003.2 specification for the `standard' Unix shell.
This chapter briefly summarizes the shell's `building blocks': commands, control structures, shell functions, shell parameters, shell expansions, redirections, which are a way to direct input and output from and to named files, and how the shell executes commands.
The following is a brief description of the shell's operation when it reads and executes a command. Basically, the shell does the following:
metacharacters. Alias expansion is performed by this step
(see section Aliases).
Quoting is used to remove the special meaning of certain characters or words to the shell. Quoting can be used to disable special treatment for special characters, to prevent reserved words from being recognized as such, and to prevent parameter expansion.
Each of the shell metacharacters (see section Definitions) has special meaning to the shell and must be quoted if it is to represent itself. There are three quoting mechanisms: the escape character, single quotes, and double quotes.
A non-quoted backslash `\' is the Bash escape character.
It preserves the literal value of the next character that follows,
with the exception of newline. If a \newline pair
appears, and the backslash itself is not quoted, the \newline
is treated as a line continuation (that is, it is removed from
the input stream and effectively ignored).
Enclosing characters in single quotes preserves the literal value of each character within the quotes. A single quote may not occur between single quotes, even when preceded by a backslash.
Enclosing characters in double quotes preserves the literal value
of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of
`$', ``', and `\'.
The characters `$' and ``'
retain their special meaning within double quotes (see section Shell Expansions).
The backslash retains its special meaning only when followed by one of
the following characters:
`$', ``', `"', `\', or newline.
Within double quotes, backslashes that are followed by one of these
characters are removed. Backslashes preceding characters without a
special meaning are left unmodified.
A double quote may be quoted within double quotes by preceding it with
a backslash.
The special parameters `*' and `@' have special meaning when in double quotes (see section Shell Parameter Expansion).
Words of the form $'string' are treated specially. The
word expands to string, with backslash-escaped characters replaced
as specifed by the ANSI C standard. Backslash escape sequences, if
present, are decoded as follows:
\a
\b
\e
\f
\n
\r
\t
\v
\\
\nnn
ASCII code is the octal value nnn
(one to three digits)
\xnnn
ASCII code is the hexadecimal value nnn
(one to three digits)
The result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had not been present.
A double-quoted string preceded by a dollar sign (`$') will cause
the string to be translated according to the current locale.
If the current locale is C or POSIX, the dollar sign
is ignored.
If the string is translated and replaced, the replacement is
double-quoted.
In a non-interactive shell, or an interactive shell in which the
interactive_comments option to the shopt
builtin is enabled (see section Bash Builtin Commands),
a word beginning with `#'
causes that word and all remaining characters on that line to
be ignored. An interactive shell without the interactive_comments
option enabled does not allow comments. The interactive_comments
option is on by default in interactive shells.
See section Is This Shell Interactive?, for a description of what makes
a shell interactive.
A simple command is the kind of command encountered most often.
It's just a sequence of words separated by blanks, terminated
by one of the shell's control operators (see section Definitions). The
first word generally specifies a command to be executed.
The return status (see section Exit Status) of a simple command is
its exit status as provided
by the POSIX.1 waitpid function, or 128+n if the command
was terminated by signal n.
A pipeline is a sequence of simple commands separated by
`|'.
[time[-p]] [!] command1 [|command2 ...]
The output of each command in the pipeline is connected to the input of the next command. That is, each command reads the previous command's output.
The reserved word time causes timing statistics
to be printed for the pipeline once it finishes.
The statistics currently consist of elapsed (wall-clock) time and
user and system time consumed by the command's execution.
The `-p' option changes the output format to that specified
by POSIX.
The TIMEFORMAT variable may be set to a format string that
specifies how the timing information should be displayed.
See section Bash Variables, for a description of the available formats.
The use of time as a reserved word permits the timing of
shell builtins, shell functions, and pipelines. An external
time command cannot time these easily.
If the pipeline is not executed asynchronously (see section Lists of Commands), the shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to complete.
Each command in a pipeline is executed in its own subshell (see section Command Execution Environment). The exit status of a pipeline is the exit status of the last command in the pipeline. If the reserved word `!' precedes the pipeline, the exit status is the logical negation of the exit status of the last command.
A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one
of the operators `;', `&', `&&', or `||',
and optionally terminated by one of `;', `&', or a
newline.
Of these list operators, `&&' and `||' have equal precedence, followed by `;' and `&', which have equal precedence.
If a command is terminated by the control operator `&',
the shell executes the command asynchronously in a subshell.
This is known as executing the command in the background.
The shell does not wait for the command to finish, and the return
status is 0 (true).
The standard input for asynchronous commands, in the absence of any
explicit redirections, is redirected from /dev/null.
Commands separated by a `;' are executed sequentially; the shell waits for each command to terminate in turn. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed.
The control operators `&&' and `||' denote AND lists and OR lists, respectively. An AND list has the form
command && command2
command2 is executed if, and only if, command returns an exit status of zero.
An OR list has the form
command || command2
command2 is executed if, and only if, command returns a non-zero exit status.
The return status of AND and OR lists is the exit status of the last command executed in the list.
Bash supports the following looping constructs.
Note that wherever you see a `;' in the description of a command's syntax, it may be replaced with one or more newlines.
until
until command is:
until test-commands; do consequent-commands; doneExecute consequent-commands as long as test-commands has an exit status which is not zero. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed in consequent-commands, or zero if none was executed.
while
while command is:
while test-commands; do consequent-commands; doneExecute consequent-commands as long as test-commands has an exit status of zero. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed in consequent-commands, or zero if none was executed.
for
for command is:
for name [in words ...]; do commands; doneExpand words, and execute commands once for each member in the resultant list, with name bound to the current member. If `in words' is not present, `in "$@"' is assumed. The return status is the exit status of the last command that executes. If there are no items in the expansion of words, no commands are executed, and the return status is zero.
The break and continue builtins (see section Bourne Shell Builtins)
may be used to control loop execution.
if
if command is:
if test-commands; then consequent-commands; [elif more-test-commands; then more-consequents;] [else alternate-consequents;] fiThe test-commands list is executed, and if its return status is zero, the consequent-commands list is executed. If test-commands returns a non-zero status, each
elif list
is executed in turn, and if its exit status is zero,
the corresponding more-consequents is executed and the
command completes.
If `else alternate-consequents' is present, and
the final command in the final if or elif clause
has a non-zero exit status, then alternate-consequents is executed.
The return status is the exit status of the last command executed, or
zero if no condition tested true.
case
case command is:
case word in [ [(] pattern [| pattern]...) command-list ;;]... esac
case will selectively execute the command-list corresponding to
the first pattern that matches word.
The `|' is used to separate multiple patterns, and the `)'
operator terminates a pattern list.
A list of patterns and an associated command-list is known
as a clause. Each clause must be terminated with `;;'.
The word undergoes tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command
substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal before matching is
attempted. Each pattern undergoes tilde expansion, parameter
expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion.
There may be an arbitrary number of case clauses, each terminated
by a `;;'. The first pattern that matches determines the
command-list that is executed.
Here is an example using case in a script that could be used to
describe one interesting feature of an animal:
echo -n "Enter the name of an animal: " read ANIMAL echo -n "The $ANIMAL has " case $ANIMAL in horse | dog | cat) echo -n "four";; man | kangaroo ) echo -n "two";; *) echo -n "an unknown number of";; esac echo " legs."The return status is zero if no pattern is matched. Otherwise, the return status is the exit status of the command-list executed.
select
select construct allows the easy generation of menus.
It has almost the same syntax as the for command:
select name [in words ...]; do commands; doneThe list of words following
in is expanded, generating a list
of items. The set of expanded words is printed on the standard
error output stream, each preceded by a number. If the
`in words' is omitted, the positional parameters are printed,
as if `in "$@"' had been specifed.
The PS3 prompt is then displayed and a line is read from the
standard input.
If the line consists of a number corresponding to one of the displayed
words, then the value of name is set to that word.
If the line is empty, the words and prompt are displayed again.
If EOF is read, the select command completes.
Any other value read causes name to be set to null.
The line read is saved in the variable REPLY.
The commands are executed after each selection until a
break or return command is executed, at which
point the select command completes.
Here is an example that allows the user to pick a filename from the
current directory, and displays the name and index of the file
selected.
select fname in *; do echo you picked $fname \($REPLY\) break; done
((...))
(( expression ))The arithmetic expression is evaluated according to the rules described below (see section Shell Arithmetic). If the value of the expression is non-zero, the return status is 0; otherwise the return status is 1. This is exactly equivalent to
let "expression"See section Bash Builtin Commands, for a full description of the
let builtin.
[[...]]
[[ expression ]]Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on the evaluation of the conditional expression expression. Expressions are composed of the primaries described below in section Bash Conditional Expressions. Word splitting and filename expansion are not performed on the words between the `[[' and `]]'; tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion, arithmetic expansion, command substitution, process substitution, and quote removal are performed. When the `==' and `!=' operators are used, the string to the right of the operator is considered a pattern and matched according to the rules described below in section Pattern Matching. The return value is 0 if the string matches or does not match the pattern, respectively, and 1 otherwise. Any part of the pattern may be quoted to force it to be matched as a string. Expressions may be combined using the following operators, listed in decreasing order of precedence:
( expression )
! expression
expression1 && expression2
expression1 || expression2
Bash provides two ways to group a list of commands to be executed as a unit. When commands are grouped, redirections may be applied to the entire command list. For example, the output of all the commands in the list may be redirected to a single stream.
()
( list )Placing a list of commands between parentheses causes a subshell to be created, and each of the commands in list to be executed in that subshell. Since the list is executed in a subshell, variable assignments do not remain in effect after the subshell completes.
{}
{ list; }
Placing a list of commands between curly braces causes the list to
be executed in the current shell context. No subshell is created.
The semicolon (or newline) following list is required.
In addition to the creation of a subshell, there is a subtle difference
between these two constructs due to historical reasons. The braces
are reserved words, so they must be separated from the list
by blanks. The parentheses are operators, and are
recognized as separate tokens by the shell even if they are not separated
from the list by whitespace.
The exit status of both of these constructs is the exit status of list.
Shell functions are a way to group commands for later execution using a single name for the group. They are executed just like a "regular" command. Shell functions are executed in the current shell context; no new process is created to interpret them.
Functions are declared using this syntax:
[ function ] name () { command-list; }
This defines a shell function named name. The reserved
word function is optional.
If the function reserved
word is supplied, the parentheses are optional.
The body of the function is the command-list between { and }.
This list is executed whenever name is specified as the
name of a command. The exit status of a function is
the exit status of the last command executed in the body.
When a function is executed, the arguments to the
function become the positional parameters
during its execution (see section Positional Parameters).
The special parameter `#' that expands to the number of
positional parameters is updated to reflect the change.
Positional parameter 0 is unchanged.
If the builtin command return
is executed in a function, the function completes and
execution resumes with the next command after the function
call. When a function completes, the values of the
positional parameters and the special parameter `#'
are restored to the values they had prior to the function's
execution. If a numeric argument is given to return,
that is the function's return status; otherwise the functions's
return status is the exit status of the last command executed
before the return.
Variables local to the function may be declared with the
local builtin. These variables are visible only to
the function and the commands it invokes.
Functions may be recursive. No limit is placed on the number of recursive calls.
A parameter is an entity that stores values.
It can be a name, a number, or one of the special characters
listed below.
For the shell's purposes, a variable is a parameter denoted by a
name.
A parameter is set if it has been assigned a value. The null string is
a valid value. Once a variable is set, it may be unset only by using
the unset builtin command.
A variable may be assigned to by a statement of the form
name=[value]
If value
is not given, the variable is assigned the null string. All
values undergo tilde expansion, parameter and variable expansion,
command substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote
removal (detailed below). If the variable has its integer
attribute set (see the description of the declare builtin in
section Bash Builtin Commands), then value
is subject to arithmetic expansion even if the $((...))
expansion is not used (see section Arithmetic Expansion).
Word splitting is not performed, with the exception
of "$@" as explained below.
Filename expansion is not performed.
A positional parameter is a parameter denoted by one or more
digits, other than the single digit 0. Positional parameters are
assigned from the shell's arguments when it is invoked,
and may be reassigned using the set builtin command.
Positional parameter N may be referenced as ${N}.
Positional parameters may not be assigned to
with assignment statements. The positional parameters are
temporarily replaced when a shell function is executed
(see section Shell Functions).
When a positional parameter consisting of more than a single digit is expanded, it must be enclosed in braces.
The shell treats several parameters specially. These parameters may only be referenced; assignment to them is not allowed.
*
IFS
special variable. That is, "$*" is equivalent
to "$1c$2c...", where c
is the first character of the value of the IFS
variable.
If IFS is unset, the parameters are separated by spaces.
If IFS is null, the parameters are joined without intervening
separators.
@
"$@" is equivalent to
"$1" "$2" ....
When there are no positional parameters, "$@" and
$@
expand to nothing (i.e., they are removed).
#
?
-
set
builtin command, or those set by the shell itself
(such as the `-i' option).
$
() subshell, it
expands to the process ID of the invoking shell, not the subshell.
!
0
$0 is set to the name of that file.
If Bash is started with the `-c' option (see section Invoking Bash),
then $0 is set to the first argument after the string to be
executed, if one is present. Otherwise, it is set
to the filename used to invoke Bash, as given by argument zero.
_
Expansion is performed on the command line after it has been split into
tokens. There are seven kinds of expansion performed:
The order of expansions is: brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter, variable, and arithmetic expansion and command substitution (done in a left-to-right fashion), word splitting, and filename expansion.
On systems that can support it, there is an additional expansion available: process substitution. This is performed at the same time as parameter, variable, and arithmetic expansion and command substitution.
Only brace expansion, word splitting, and filename expansion
can change the number of words of the expansion; other expansions
expand a single word to a single word.
The only exceptions to this are the expansions of
"$@" (see section Special Parameters) and "${name[@]}"
(see section Arrays).
After all expansions, quote removal (see section Quote Removal)
is performed.
Brace expansion is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings may be generated. This mechanism is similar to filename expansion (see section Filename Expansion), but the file names generated need not exist. Patterns to be brace expanded take the form of an optional preamble, followed by a series of comma-separated strings between a pair of braces, followed by an optional postscript. The preamble is prepended to each string contained within the braces, and the postscript is then appended to each resulting string, expanding left to right.
Brace expansions may be nested. The results of each expanded string are not sorted; left to right order is preserved. For example,
bash$ echo a{d,c,b}e
ade ace abe
Brace expansion is performed before any other expansions, and any characters special to other expansions are preserved in the result. It is strictly textual. Bash does not apply any syntactic interpretation to the context of the expansion or the text between the braces.
A correctly-formed brace expansion must contain unquoted opening and closing braces, and at least one unquoted comma. Any incorrectly formed brace expansion is left unchanged.
This construct is typically used as shorthand when the common prefix of the strings to be generated is longer than in the above example:
mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs}
or
chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}}
If a word begins with an unquoted tilde character (`~'), all of the
characters up to the first unquoted slash (or all characters,
if there is no unquoted slash) are considered a tilde-prefix.
If none of the characters in the tilde-prefix are quoted, the
characters in the tilde-prefix following the tilde are treated as a
possible login name.
If this login name is the null string, the tilde is replaced with the
value of the HOME shell variable.
If HOME is unset, the home directory of the user executing the
shell is substituted instead.
Otherwise, the tilde-prefix is replaced with the home directory
associated with the specified login name.
If the tilde-prefix is `~+', the value of
the shell variable PWD replaces the tilde-prefix.
If the tilde-prefix is `~-', the value of the shell variable
OLDPWD, if it is set, is substituted.
If the characters following the tilde in the tilde-prefix consist of a
number N, optionally prefixed by a `+' or a `-',
the tilde-prefix is replaced with the
corresponding element from the directory stack, as it would be displayed
by the dirs builtin invoked with the characters following tilde
in the tilde-prefix as an argument (see section The Directory Stack).
If the tilde-prefix, sans the tilde, consists of a number without a
leading `+' or `-', `+' is assumed.
If the login name is invalid, or the tilde expansion fails, the word is left unchanged.
Each variable assignment is checked for unquoted tilde-prefixes immediately
following a `:' or `='.
In these cases, tilde expansion is also performed.
Consequently, one may use file names with tildes in assignments to
PATH, MAILPATH, and CDPATH,
and the shell assigns the expanded value.
The following table shows how Bash treats unquoted tilde-prefixes:
~
$HOME
~/foo
~fred/foo
foo of the home directory of the user
fred
~+/foo
~-/foo
~N
~+N
~-N
The `$' character introduces parameter expansion, command substitution, or arithmetic expansion. The parameter name or symbol to be expanded may be enclosed in braces, which are optional but serve to protect the variable to be expanded from characters immediately following it which could be interpreted as part of the name.
When braces are used, the matching ending brace is the first `}' not escaped by a backslash or within a quoted string, and not within an embedded arithmetic expansion, command substitution, or parameter expansion.
The basic form of parameter expansion is ${parameter}. The value of parameter is substituted. The braces are required when parameter is a positional parameter with more than one digit, or when parameter is followed by a character that is not to be interpreted as part of its name.
If the first character of parameter is an exclamation point,
a level of variable indirection is introduced.
Bash uses the value of the variable formed from the rest of
parameter as the name of the variable; this variable is then
expanded and that value is used in the rest of the substitution, rather
than the value of parameter itself.
This is known as indirect expansion.
In each of the cases below, word is subject to tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. When not performing substring expansion, Bash tests for a parameter that is unset or null; omitting the colon results in a test only for a parameter that is unset.
${parameter:-word}
${parameter:=word}
${parameter:?word}
${parameter:+word}
${parameter:offset}
${parameter:offset:length}
${parameter[offset]}.
Substring indexing is zero-based unless the positional parameters
are used, in which case the indexing starts at 1.
${#parameter}
${parameter#word}
${parameter##word}
${parameter%word}
${parameter%%word}
${parameter/pattern/string}
${parameter//pattern/string}
/ following pattern may be omitted.
If parameter is `@' or `*',
the substitution operation is applied to each positional
parameter in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
If parameter
is an array variable subscripted with `@' or `*',
the substitution operation is applied to each member of the
array in turn, and the expansion is the resultant list.
Command substitution allows the output of a command to replace the command name. There are two forms:
$(command)
or
`command`
Bash performs the expansion by executing command and
replacing the command substitution with the standard output of the
command, with any trailing newlines deleted.
Embedded newlines are not deleted, but they may be removed during
word splitting.
The command substitution $(cat file) can be
replaced by the equivalent but faster $(< file).
When the old-style backquote form of substitution is used,
backslash retains its literal meaning except when followed by
`$', ``', or `\'.
The first backquote not preceded by a backslash terminates the
command substitution.
When using the $(command) form, all characters between
the parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially.
Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the backquoted form, escape the inner backquotes with backslashes.
If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and filename expansion are not performed on the results.
Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression and the substitution of the result. The format for arithmetic expansion is:
$(( expression ))
The expression is treated as if it were within double quotes, but a double quote inside the parentheses is not treated specially. All tokens in the expression undergo parameter expansion, command substitution, and quote removal. Arithmetic substitutions may be nested.
The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed below (see section Shell Arithmetic). If the expression is invalid, Bash prints a message indicating failure to the standard error and no substitution occurs.
Process substitution is supported on systems that support named pipes (FIFOs) or the `/dev/fd' method of naming open files. It takes the form of
<(list)
or
>(list)
The process list is run with its input or output connected to a
FIFO or some file in `/dev/fd'. The name of this file is
passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the
expansion. If the >(list) form is used, writing to
the file will provide input for list. If the
<(list) form is used, the file passed as an
argument should be read to obtain the output of list.
When available, process substitution is performed simultaneously with parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion.
The shell scans the results of parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion that did not occur within double quotes for word splitting.
The shell treats each character of $IFS
as a delimiter, and splits the results of the other
expansions into words on these characters. If
IFS is unset, or its value is exactly <space><tab><newline>,
the default, then any sequence of IFS
characters serves to delimit words. If IFS
has a value other than the default, then sequences of
the whitespace characters space and tab
are ignored at the beginning and end of the
word, as long as the whitespace character is in the
value of IFS (an IFS whitespace character).
Any character in IFS that is not IFS
whitespace, along with any adjacent IFS
whitespace characters, delimits a field. A sequence of IFS
whitespace characters is also treated as a delimiter.
If the value of IFS is null, no word splitting occurs.
Explicit null arguments ("" or ") are retained.
Unquoted implicit null arguments, resulting from the expansion of
parameters
that have no values, are removed.
If a parameter with no value is expanded within double quotes, a
null argument results and is retained.
Note that if no expansion occurs, no splitting is performed.
After word splitting, unless the `-f' option has been set
(see section The Set Builtin), Bash scans each word for the characters
`*', `?', `(', and `['.
If one of these characters appears, then the word is
regarded as a pattern,
and replaced with an alphabetically sorted list of
file names matching the pattern. If no matching file names are found,
and the shell option nullglob is disabled, the word is left
unchanged.
If the nullglob option is set, and no matches are found, the word
is removed.
If the shell option nocaseglob is enabled, the match is performed
without regard to the case of alphabetic characters.
When a pattern is used for filename generation, the character `.'
at the start of a filename or immediately following a slash
must be matched explicitly, unless the shell option dotglob is set.
When matching a file name, the slash character must always be
matched explicitly.
In other cases, the `.' character is not treated specially.
See the description of shopt in section Bash Builtin Commands,
for a description of the nocaseglob, nullglob,
and dotglob options.
The GLOBIGNORE
shell variable may be used to restrict the set of filenames matching a
pattern. If GLOBIGNORE
is set, each matching filename that also matches one of the patterns in
GLOBIGNORE is removed from the list of matches. The filenames
`.' and `..'
are always ignored, even when GLOBIGNORE
is set. However, setting GLOBIGNORE has the effect of
enabling the dotglob
shell option, so all other filenames beginning with a
`.' will match.
To get the old behavior of ignoring filenames beginning with a
`.', make `.*' one of the patterns in GLOBIGNORE.
The dotglob option is disabled when GLOBIGNORE
is unset.
Any character that appears in a pattern, other than the special pattern characters described below, matches itself. The NUL character may not occur in a pattern. The special pattern characters must be quoted if they are to be matched literally.
The special pattern characters have the following meanings:
*
?
[...]
[:class:], where class is one of the
following classes defined in the POSIX.2 standard:
alnum alpha ascii blank cntrl digit graph lower print punct space upper xdigitA character class matches any character belonging to that class. Within `[' and `]', an equivalence class can be specified using the syntax
[=c=], which
matches all characters with the same collation weight (as defined
by the current locale) as the character c.
Within `[' and `]', the syntax [.symbol.]
matches the collating symbol symbol.
If the extglob shell option is enabled using the shopt
builtin, several extended pattern matching operators are recognized.
In the following description, a pattern-list is a list of one
or more patterns separated by a `|'.
Composite patterns may be formed using one or more of the following
sub-patterns:
?(pattern-list)
*(pattern-list)
+(pattern-list)
@(pattern-list)
!(pattern-list)
After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the characters `\', `'', and `"' that did not result from one of the above expansions are removed.
Before a command is executed, its input and output may be redirected using a special notation interpreted by the shell. Redirection may also be used to open and close files for the current shell execution environment. The following redirection operators may precede or appear anywhere within a simple command or may follow a command. Redirections are processed in the order they appear, from left to right.
In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is omitted, and the first character of the redirection operator is `<', the redirection refers to the standard input (file descriptor 0). If the first character of the redirection operator is `>', the redirection refers to the standard output (file descriptor 1).
The word following the redirection operator in the following descriptions, unless otherwise noted, is subjected to brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, quote removal, and filename expansion. If it expands to more than one word, Bash reports an error.
Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the command
ls > dirlist 2>&1
directs both standard output and standard error to the file dirlist, while the command
ls 2>&1 > dirlist
directs only the standard output to file dirlist, because the standard error was duplicated as standard output before the standard output was redirected to dirlist.
A failure to open or create a file causes the redirection to fail.
Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from
the expansion of word
to be opened for reading on file descriptor n,
or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if n
is not specified.
The general format for redirecting input is:
[n]<word
Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from
the expansion of word
to be opened for writing on file descriptor n,
or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if n
is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created;
if it does exist it is truncated to zero size.
The general format for redirecting output is:
[n]>[|]word
If the redirection operator is `>', and the noclobber
option to the set builtin has been enabled, the redirection
will fail if the filename whose name results from the expansion of
word exists and is a regular file.
If the redirection operator is `>|', or the redirection operator is
`>' and the noclobber option is not enabled, the redirection
is attempted even if the file named by word exists.
Redirection of output in this fashion
causes the file whose name results from
the expansion of word
to be opened for appending on file descriptor n,
or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if n
is not specified. If the file does not exist it is created.
The general format for appending output is:
[n]>>word
Bash allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the standard error output (file descriptor 2) to be redirected to the file whose name is the expansion of word with this construct.
There are two formats for redirecting standard output and standard error:
&>word
and
>&word
Of the two forms, the first is preferred. This is semantically equivalent to
>word 2>&1
This type of redirection instructs the shell to read input from the current source until a line containing only word (with no trailing blanks) is seen. All of the lines read up to that point are then used as the standard input for a command.
The format of here-documents is as follows:
<<[-]word
here-document
delimiter
No parameter expansion, command substitution, filename
expansion, or arithmetic expansion is performed on
word. If any characters in word are quoted, the
delimiter is the result of quote removal on word,
and the lines in the here-document are not expanded.
If word is unquoted,
all lines of the here-document are subjected to parameter expansion,
command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. In the latter
case, the pair \newline is ignored, and `\'
must be used to quote the characters
`\', `$', and ``'.
If the redirection operator is `<<-', then all leading tab characters are stripped from input lines and the line containing delimiter. This allows here-documents within shell scripts to be indented in a natural fashion.
The redirection operator
[n]<&word
is used to duplicate input file descriptors.
If word
expands to one or more digits, the file descriptor denoted by n
is made to be a copy of that file descriptor.
If the digits in word do not specify a file descriptor open for
input, a redirection error occurs.
If word
evaluates to `-', file descriptor n is closed. If
n is not specified, the standard input (file descriptor 0) is used.
The operator
[n]>&word
is used similarly to duplicate output file descriptors. If
n
is not specified, the standard output (file descriptor 1) is used.
If the digits in word do not specify a file descriptor open for
output, a redirection error occurs.
As a special case, if n is omitted, and word does not
expand to one or more digits, the standard output and standard
error are redirected as described previously.
The redirection operator
[n]<>word
causes the file whose name is the expansion of word
to be opened for both reading and writing on file descriptor
n, or on file descriptor 0 if n
is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created.
When a simple command is executed, the shell performs the following expansions, assignments, and redirections, from left to right.
If no command name results, the variable assignments affect the current shell environment. Otherwise, the variables are added to the environment of the executed command and do not affect the current shell environment. If any of the assignments attempts to assign a value to a readonly variable, an error occurs, and the command exits with a non-zero status.
If no command name results, redirections are performed, but do not affect the current shell environment. A redirection error causes the command to exit with a non-zero status.
If there is a command name left after expansion, execution proceeds as described below. Otherwise, the command exits. If one of the expansions contained a command substitution, the exit status of the command is the exit status of the last command substitution performed. If there were no command substitutions, the command exits with a status of zero.
After a command has been split into words, if it results in a simple command and an optional list of arguments, the following actions are taken.
$PATH for a directory containing an executable file
by that name. Bash uses a hash table to remember the full
pathnames of executable files to avoid multiple PATH searches
(see the description of hash in section Bourne Shell Builtins).
A full search of the directories in $PATH
is performed only if the command is not found in the hash table.
If the search is unsuccessful, the shell prints an error
message and returns an exit status of 127.
The shell has an execution environment, which consists of the following:
exec builtin
cd, pushd, or
popd, or inherited by the shell at invocation
umask or inherited from
the shell's parent
trap
set
or inherited from the shell's parent in the environment
set
shopt
alias (see section Aliases)
$$, and the value of
$PPID
When a simple command other than a builtin or shell function is to be executed, it is invoked in a separate execution environment that consists of the following. Unless otherwise noted, the values are inherited from the shell.
A command invoked in this separate environment cannot affect the shell's execution environment.
Command substitution and asynchronous commands are invoked in a subshell environment that is a duplicate of the shell environment, except that traps caught by the shell are reset to the values that the shell inherited from its parent at invocation. Builtin commands that are invoked as part of a pipeline are also executed in a subshell environment. Changes made to the subshell environment cannot affect the shell's execution environment.
When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings
called the environment.
This is a list of name-value pairs, of the form name=value.
Bash allows you to manipulate the environment in several
ways. On invocation, the shell scans its own environment and
creates a parameter for each name found, automatically marking
it for export
to child processes. Executed commands inherit the environment.
The export and `declare -x'
commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and
deleted from the environment. If the value of a parameter
in the environment is modified, the new value becomes part
of the environment, replacing the old. The environment
inherited by any executed command consists of the shell's
initial environment, whose values may be modified in the shell,
less any pairs removed by the unset and `export -n'
commands, plus any additions via the export and
`declare -x' commands.
The environment for any simple command or function may be augmented temporarily by prefixing it with parameter assignments, as described in section Shell Parameters. These assignment statements affect only the environment seen by that command.
If the `-k' option is set (see section The Set Builtin), then all parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command, not just those that precede the command name.
When Bash invokes an external command, the variable `$_' is set to the full path name of the command and passed to that command in its environment.
For the shell's purposes, a command which exits with a zero exit status has succeeded. A non-zero exit status indicates failure. This seemingly counter-intuitive scheme is used so there is one well-defined way to indicate success and a variety of ways to indicate various failure modes. When a command terminates on a fatal signal whose number is n, Bash uses the value 128+n as the exit status.
If a command is not found, the child process created to execute it returns a status of 127. If a command is found but is not executable, the return status is 126.
If a command fails because of an error during expansion or redirection, the exit status is greater than zero.
The exit status is used by the Bash conditional commands (see section Conditional Constructs) and some of the list constructs (see section Lists of Commands).
All of the Bash builtins return an exit status of zero if they succeed and a non-zero status on failure, so they may be used by the conditional and list constructs. All builtins return an exit status of 2 to indicate incorrect usage.
When Bash is interactive, in the absence of any traps, it ignores
SIGTERM (so that `kill 0' does not kill an interactive shell),
and SIGINT
is caught and handled (so that the wait builtin is interruptible).
When Bash receives a SIGINT, it breaks out of any executing loops.
In all cases, Bash ignores SIGQUIT.
If job control is in effect (see section Job Control), Bash
ignores SIGTTIN, SIGTTOU, and SIGTSTP.
Commands started by Bash have signal handlers set to the
values inherited by the shell from its parent.
When job control is not in effect, asynchronous commands
ignore SIGINT and SIGQUIT as well.
Commands run as a result of
command substitution ignore the keyboard-generated job control signals
SIGTTIN, SIGTTOU, and SIGTSTP.
The shell exits by default upon receipt of a SIGHUP.
Before exiting, it resends the SIGHUP to all jobs, running
or stopped.
Stopped jobs are sent SIGCONT to ensure that they receive
the SIGHUP.
To prevent the shell from sending the SIGHUP signal to a
particular job, it should be removed
from the jobs table with the disown
builtin (see section Job Control Builtins) or marked
to not receive SIGHUP using disown -h.
If the huponexit shell option has been set with shopt
(see section Bash Builtin Commands), Bash sends a SIGHUP to all jobs when
an interactive login shell exits.
When Bash receives a signal for which a trap has been set while waiting
for a command to complete, the trap will not be executed until the
command completes.
When Bash is waiting for an asynchronous
command via the wait builtin, the reception of a signal for
which a trap has been set will cause the wait builtin to return
immediately with an exit status greater than 128, immediately after
which the trap is executed.
A shell script is a text file containing shell commands. When such
a file is used as the first non-option argument when invoking Bash,
and neither the `-c' nor `-s' option is supplied
(see section Invoking Bash),
Bash reads and executes commands from the file, then exits. This
mode of operation creates a non-interactive shell. When Bash runs
a shell script, it sets the special parameter 0 to the name
of the file, rather than the name of the shell, and the positional
parameters are set to the remaining arguments, if any are given.
If no additional arguments are supplied, the positional parameters
are unset.
A shell script may be made executable by using the chmod command
to turn on the execute bit. When Bash finds such a file while
searching the $PATH for a command, it spawns a subshell to
execute it. In other words, executing
filename arguments
is equivalent to executing
bash filename arguments
if filename is an executable shell script.
This subshell reinitializes itself, so that the effect is as if a
new shell had been invoked to interpret the script, with the
exception that the locations of commands remembered by the parent
(see the description of hash in section Bourne Shell Builtins)
are retained by the child.
Most versions of Unix make this a part of the kernel's command execution mechanism. If the first line of a script begins with the two characters `#!', the remainder of the line specifies an interpreter for the program. The arguments to the interpreter consist of a single optional argument following the interpreter name on the first line of the script file, followed by the name of the script file, followed by the rest of the arguments. Bash will perform this action on operating systems that do not handle it themselves. Note that some older versions of Unix limit the interpreter name and argument to a maximum of 32 characters.
This section briefly summarizes things which Bash inherits from the Bourne Shell: builtins, variables, and other features. It also lists the significant differences between Bash and the Bourne Shell. Many of the builtins have been extended by POSIX or Bash.
The following shell builtin commands are inherited from the Bourne Shell. These commands are implemented as specified by the POSIX 1003.2 standard.
:
: [arguments]Do nothing beyond expanding arguments and performing redirections. The return status is zero.
.
. filename [arguments]Read and execute commands from the filename argument in the current shell context. If filename does not contain a slash, the
$PATH variable is used to find
filename. The current directory is searched if filename
is not found in $PATH.
If any arguments are supplied, they become the positional
parameters when filename is executed. Otherwise the positional
parameters are unchanged.
The return status is the exit status of the last command executed, or
zero if no commands are executed. If filename is not found, or
cannot be read, the return status is non-zero.
break
break [n]Exit from a
for, while, until, or select loop.
If n is supplied, the nth enclosing loop is exited.
n must be greater than or equal to 1.
The return status is zero unless n is not greater than or equal to 1.
cd
cd [-LP] [directory]Change the current working directory to directory. If directory is not given, the value of the
HOME shell variable is used. If the
shell variable CDPATH exists, it is used as a search path. If
directory begins with a slash, CDPATH is not used.
The `-P' option means
to not follow symbolic links; symbolic links are followed by default
or with the `-L' option.
If directory is `-', it is equivalent to $OLDPWD.
The return status is zero if the directory is successfully changed,
non-zero otherwise.
continue
continue [n]Resume the next iteration of an enclosing
for, while,
until, or select loop.
If n is supplied, the execution of the nth enclosing loop
is resumed.
n must be greater than or equal to 1.
The return status is zero unless n is not greater than or equal to 1.
eval
eval [arguments]The arguments are concatenated together into a single command, which is then read and executed, and its exit status returned as the exit status of
eval.
If there are no arguments or only empty arguments, the return status is
zero.
exec
exec [-cl] [-a name] [command [arguments]]If command is supplied, it replaces the shell without creating a new process. If the `-l' option is supplied, the shell places a dash in the zeroth arg passed to command. This is what the
login program does.
The `-c' option causes command to be executed with an empty
environment.
If `-a' is supplied, the shell passes name as the zeroth
argument to command.
If no command is specified, redirections may be used to affect
the current shell environment. If there are no redirection errors, the
return status is zero; otherwise the return status is non-zero.
exit
exit [n]Exit the shell, returning a status of n to the shell's parent. Any trap on
EXIT is executed before the shell terminates.
export
export [-fn] [-p] [name[=value]]Mark each name to be passed to child processes in the environment. If the `-f' option is supplied, the names refer to shell functions; otherwise the names refer to shell variables. The `-n' option means to no longer mark each name for export. If no names are supplied, or if the `-p' option is given, a list of exported names is displayed. The `-p' option displays output in a form that may be reused as input. The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied, one of the names is not a valid shell variable name, or `-f' is supplied with a name that is not a shell function.
getopts
getopts optstring name [args]
getopts is used by shell scripts to parse positional parameters.
optstring contains the option letters to be recognized; if a letter
is followed by a colon, the option is expected to have an
argument, which should be separated from it by white space.
Each time it is invoked, getopts
places the next option in the shell variable name, initializing
name if it does not exist,
and the index of the next argument to be processed into the
variable OPTIND.
OPTIND is initialized to 1 each time the shell or a shell script
is invoked.
When an option requires an argument,
getopts places that argument into the variable OPTARG.
The shell does not reset OPTIND automatically; it must be manually
reset between multiple calls to getopts within the same shell
invocation if a new set of parameters is to be used.
When the end of options is encountered, getopts exits with a
return value greater than zero.
OPTIND is set to the index of the first non-option argument,
and name is set to `?'.
getopts
normally parses the positional parameters, but if more arguments are
given in args, getopts parses those instead.
getopts can report errors in two ways. If the first character of
optstring is a colon, silent
error reporting is used. In normal operation diagnostic messages
are printed when invalid options or missing option arguments are
encountered.
If the variable OPTERR
is set to 0, no error messages will be displayed, even if the first
character of optstring is not a colon.
If an invalid option is seen,
getopts places `?' into name and, if not silent,
prints an error message and unsets OPTARG.
If getopts is silent, the option character found is placed in
OPTARG and no diagnostic message is printed.
If a required argument is not found, and getopts
is not silent, a question mark (`?') is placed in name,
OPTARG is unset, and a diagnostic message is printed.
If getopts is silent, then a colon (`:') is placed in
name and OPTARG is set to the option character found.
hash
hash [-r] [-p filename] [name]Remember the full pathnames of commands specified as name arguments, so they need not be searched for on subsequent invocations. The commands are found by searching through the directories listed in
$PATH.
The `-p' option inhibits the path search, and filename is
used as the location of name.
The `-r' option causes the shell to forget all remembered locations.
If no arguments are given, information about remembered commands is printed.
The return status is zero unless a name is not found or an invalid
option is supplied.
pwd
pwd [-LP]Print the current working directory. If the `-P' option is supplied, the path printed will not contain symbolic links. If the `-L' option is supplied, the path printed may contain symbolic links. The return status is zero unless an error is encountered while determining the name of the current directory or an invalid option is supplied.
readonly
readonly [-apf] [name] ...Mark each name as readonly. The values of these names may not be changed by subsequent assignment. If the `-f' option is supplied, each name refers to a shell function. The `-a' option means each name refers to an array variable. If no name arguments are given, or if the `-p' option is supplied, a list of all readonly names is printed. The `-p' option causes output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input. The return status is zero unless an invalid option is supplied, one of the name arguments is not a valid shell variable or function name, or the `-f' option is supplied with a name that is not a shell function.
return
return [n]Cause a shell function to exit with the return value n. This may also be used to terminate execution of a script being executed with the
. builtin, returning either n or the exit status
of the last command executed within the script as the exit status of the
script.
The return status is false if return is used outside a function
and not during the execution of a script by `.'.
shift
shift [n]Shift the positional parameters to the left by n. The positional parameters from n+1 ...
$# are
renamed to $1 ... $#-n+1.
Parameters represented by the numbers $# to n+1 are unset.
n must be a non-negative number less than or equal to $#.
If n is zero or greater than $#, the positional parameters
are not changed.
The return status is zero unless n is greater than $# or
less than zero, non-zero otherwise.
test
[
! expr
( expr )
expr1 -a expr2
expr1 -o expr2
test and [ builtins evaluate conditional
expressions using a set of rules based on the number of arguments.
times
timesPrint out the user and system times used by the shell and its children. The return status is zero.
trap
trap [-lp] [arg] [sigspec ...]The commands in arg are to be read and executed when the shell receives signal sigspec. If arg is absent or equal to `-', all specified signals are reset to the values they had when the shell was started. If arg is the null string, then the signal specified by each sigspec is ignored by the shell and commands it invokes. If arg is `-p', the shell displays the trap commands associated with each sigspec. If no arguments are supplied, or only `-p' is given,
trap prints the list of commands
associated with each signal number in a form that may be reused as
shell input.
Each sigspec is either a signal name such as SIGINT (with
or without the SIG prefix) or a signal number.
If a sigspec
is 0 or EXIT, arg is executed when the shell exits.
If a sigspec is DEBUG, the command arg is executed
after every simple command.
The `-l' option causes the shell to print a list of signal names
and their corresponding numbers.
Signals ignored upon entry to the shell cannot be trapped or reset.
Trapped signals are reset to their original values in a child
process when it is created.
The return status is zero unless a sigspec does not specify a
valid signal.
umask
umask [-p] [-S] [mode]Set the shell process's file creation mask to mode. If mode begins with a digit, it is interpreted as an octal number; if not, it is interpreted as a symbolic mode mask similar to that accepted by the
chmod command. If mode is
omitted, the current value of the mask is printed. If the `-S'
option is supplied without a mode argument, the mask is printed
in a symbolic format.
If the `-p' option is supplied, and mode
is omitted, the output is in a form that may be reused as input.
The return status is zero if the mode is successfully changed or if
no mode argument is supplied, and non-zero otherwise.
unset
unset [-fv] [name]Each variable or function name is removed. If no options are supplied, or the `-v' option is given, each name refers to a shell variable. If the `-f' option is given, the names refer to shell functions, and the function definition is removed. Readonly variables and functions may not be unset. The return status is zero unless a name does not exist or is readonly.
Bash uses certain shell variables in the same way as the Bourne shell. In some cases, Bash assigns a default value to the variable.
CDPATH
cd builtin command.
HOME
cd builtin
command.
The value of this variable is also used by tilde expansion
(see section Tilde Expansion).
IFS
MAIL
MAILPATH variable
is not set, Bash informs the user of the arrival of mail in
the specified file.
MAILPATH
$_ expands to the name of
the current mail file.
OPTARG
getopts builtin.
OPTIND
getopts builtin.
PATH
PS1
PS2
Bash implements essentially the same grammar, parameter and variable expansion, redirection, and quoting as the Bourne Shell. Bash uses the POSIX 1003.2 standard as the specification of how these features are to be implemented. There are some differences between the traditional Bourne shell and Bash; this section quickly details the differences of significance. A number of these differences are explained in greater depth in subsequent sections.
sh behavior.
bind builtin.
history and fc builtins to manipulate it.
csh-like history expansion
(see section History Expansion).
$'...' quoting syntax, which expands ANSI-C
backslash-escaped characters in the text between the single quotes,
is supported (see section ANSI-C Quoting).
$"..." quoting syntax to do
locale-specific translation of the characters between the double
quotes. The `-D', `--dump-strings', and `--dump-po-strings'
invocation options list the translatable strings found in a script
(see section Locale-Specific Translation).
! keyword to negate the return value of
a pipeline (see section Pipelines).
Very useful when an if statement needs to act only if a test fails.
time reserved word and command timing (see section Pipelines).
The display of the timing statistics may be controlled with the
TIMEFORMAT variable.
select compound command, which allows the
generation of simple menus (see section Conditional Constructs).
[[ compound command, which makes conditional
testing part of the shell grammar (see section Conditional Constructs).
alias and unalias
builtins (see section Aliases).
(( compound command
(see section Conditional Constructs),
and arithmetic expansion (see section Shell Arithmetic).
export
command.
${#xx}, which returns the length of ${xx},
is supported (see section Shell Parameter Expansion).
${var:offset[:length]},
which expands to the substring of var's value of length
length, beginning at offset, is present
(see section Shell Parameter Expansion).
${var/[/]pattern[/replacement]},
which matches pattern and replaces it with replacement in
the value of var, is available (see section Shell Parameter Expansion).
${!word}
(see section Shell Parameter Expansion).
$9 using
${num}.
$() form of command substitution
is implemented (see section Command Substitution),
and preferred to the Bourne shell's " (which
is also implemented for backwards compatibility).
UID, EUID, and GROUPS), the current host
(HOSTTYPE, OSTYPE, MACHTYPE, and HOSTNAME),
and the instance of Bash that is running (BASH,
BASH_VERSION, and BASH_VERSINFO). See section Bash Variables,
for details.
IFS variable is used to split only the results of expansion,
not all words (see section Word Splitting).
This closes a longstanding shell security hole.
extglob
shell option is enabled (see section Pattern Matching).
sh does not separate the two name spaces.
local builtin, and thus useful recursive functions may be written.
sh, all variable assignments
preceding commands are global unless the command is executed from the
file system.
noclobber option is available to avoid overwriting existing
files with output redirection (see section The Set Builtin).
The `>|' redirection operator may be used to override noclobber.
cd and pwd builtins (see section Bourne Shell Builtins)
each take `-L' and `-P' builtins to switch between logical and
physical modes.
builtin and command builtins (see section Bash Builtin Commands).
command builtin allows selective disabling of functions
when command lookup is performed (see section Bash Builtin Commands).
enable
builtin (see section Bash Builtin Commands).
exec builtin takes additional options that allow users
to control the contents of the environment passed to the executed
command, and what the zeroth argument to the command is to be
(see section Bourne Shell Builtins).
export -f (see section Shell Functions).
export, readonly, and declare builtins can
take a `-f' option to act on shell functions, a `-p' option to
display variables with various attributes set in a format that can be
used as shell input, a `-n' option to remove various variable
attributes, and `name=value' arguments to set variable attributes
and values simultaneously.
hash builtin allows a name to be associated with
an arbitrary filename, even when that filename cannot be found by
searching the $PATH, using `hash -p'
(see section Bourne Shell Builtins).
help builtin for quick reference to shell
facilities (see section Bash Builtin Commands).
printf builtin is available to display formatted output
(see section Bash Builtin Commands).
read builtin (see section Bash Builtin Commands)
will read a line ending in `\' with
the `-r' option, and will use the REPLY variable as a
default if no arguments are supplied. The Bash read builtin
also accepts a prompt string with the `-p' option and will use
Readline to obtain the line when given the `-e' option.
return builtin may be used to abort execution of scripts
executed with the . or source builtins
(see section Bourne Shell Builtins).
shopt builtin, for finer control of shell
optional capabilities (see section Bash Builtin Commands).
set
builtin (see section The Set Builtin).
test builtin (see section Bourne Shell Builtins)
is slightly different, as it implements the POSIX algorithm,
which specifies the behavior based on the number of arguments.
trap builtin (see section Bourne Shell Builtins)
allows a DEBUG pseudo-signal specification,
similar to EXIT. Commands specified with a DEBUG trap are
executed after every simple command. The DEBUG trap is not
inherited by shell functions.
type builtin is more extensive and gives more information
about the names it finds (see section Bash Builtin Commands).
umask builtin permits a `-p' option to cause
the output to be displayed in the form of a umask command
that may be reused as input (see section Bourne Shell Builtins).
csh-like directory stack, and provides the
pushd, popd, and dirs builtins to manipulate it
(see section The Directory Stack).
Bash also makes the directory stack visible as the value of the
DIRSTACK shell variable.
disown builtin can remove a job from the internal shell
job table (see section Job Control Builtins) or suppress the sending
of SIGHUP to a job when the shell exits as the result of a
SIGHUP.
mldmode and priv) not present in Bash.
stop or newgrp builtins.
SHACCT variable or perform shell accounting.
sh uses a TIMEOUT variable like Bash uses
TMOUT.
More features unique to Bash may be found in section Bash Features.
Since Bash is a completely new implementation, it does not suffer from many of the limitations of the SVR4.2 shell. For instance:
if or while
statement.
EOF under certain circumstances.
This can be the c